Process Creation
Operating systems need some way to create processes. In very simple systems, or in systems designed for running only a single application (e.g., the controller in a microwave oven), it may be possible to have all the processes that will ev er be needed be present when the system comes up. In general-purpose systems, however, some way is needed to create and terminate processes as needed during operation. We will now look at some of the issues.
Four principal events cause processes to be created:
1. System initialization.
2. Execution of a process-creation system call by a running process.
3. A user request to create a new process.
4. Initiation of a batch job.
When an operating system is booted, typically numerous processes are created. Some of these are foreground processes, that is, processes that interact with (human) users and perform work for them. Others run in the background and are not associated with particular users, but instead have some specific function. For example, one background process may be designed to accept incoming email, sleeping most of the day but suddenly springing to life when email arrives. Another background process may be designed to accept incoming requests for Web pages hosted on that machine, waking up when a request arrives to service the request. Processes that stay in the background to handle some activity such as email, Web pages, news, printing, and so on are called daemons. Large systems commonly have dozens of them. In UNIX†, the ps program can be used to list the running processes. In Windows, the task manager can be used.
In addition to the processes created at boot time, new processes can be created afterward as well. Often a running process will issue system calls to create one or more new processes to help it do its job. Creating new processes is particularly useful when the work to be done can easily be formulated in terms of several related, but otherwise independent interacting processes. For example, if a large amount of data is being fetched over a network for subsequent processing, it may be convenient to create one process to fetch the data and put them in a shared buffer while a second process removes the data items and processes them. On a multiprocessor, allowing each process to run on a different CPU may also make the job go faster.
In interactive systems, users can start a program by typing a command or (double) clicking on anicon. Taking either of these actions starts a new process and runs the selected program in it. In command-based UNIX systems running X, the new process takes over the window in which it was started. In Windows, when a process is started it does not have a window, but it can create one (or more) and most do. In both systems, users may have multiple windows open at once, each running some process. Using the mouse, the user can select a window and interact with the process, for example, providing input when needed.
The last situation in which processes are created applies only to the batch systems found on large mainframes. Think of inventory management at the end of a day at a chain of stores. Here users can submit batch jobs to the system (possibly remotely). When the operating system decides that it has the resources to run another job, it creates a new process and runs the next job from the input queue in it.
Technically, in all these cases, a new process is created by having an existing process execute a process creation system call. That process may be a running user process, a system process invoked from the keyboard or mouse, or a batch-manager process. What that process does is execute a system call to create the new process. This system call tells the operating system to create a new process and indicates, directly or indirectly, which program to run in it.
In UNIX, there is only one system call to create a new process: fork. This call creates an exact clone of the calling process. After the fork, the two processes, the parent and the child, have the same memory image, the same environment strings, and the same open files. That is all there is. Usually, the child process then executes execve or a similar system call to change its memory image and run a new program. For example, when a user types a command, say, sort, to the shell, the shell forks off a child process and the child executes sort. The reason for this twostep process is to allow the child to manipulate its file descriptors after the fork but before the execve in order to accomplish redirection of standard input, standard output, and standard error.
In Windows, in contrast, a single Win32 function call, CreateProcess, handles both process creation and loading the correct program into the new process. This call has 10 parameters, which include the program to be executed, the command-line parameters to feed that program, various security attributes, bits that control whether open files are inherited, priority information, a specification of the window to be created for the process (if any), and a pointer to a structure in which information about the newly created process is returned to the caller. In addition to CreateProcess, Win32 has about 100 other functions for managing and synchronizing processes and related topics.
In both UNIX and Windows systems, after a process is created, the parent and child have their own distinct address spaces. If either process changes a word in its address space, the change is not visible to the other process. In UNIX, the child’s initial address space is a copy of the parent’s, but there are definitely two distinct address spaces involved; no writable memory is shared. Some UNIX implementations share the program text between the two since that cannot be modified. Alternatively, the child may share all of the parent’s memory, but in that case the memory is shared copy-on-write, which means that whenever either of the two wants to modify part of the memory, that chunk of memory is explicitly copied first to make sure the modification occurs in a private memory area. Again, no writable memory is shared. It is, however, possible for a newly created process to share some of its creator’s other resources, such as open files. In Windows, the parent’s and child’s address spaces are different from the start.